When a reader suspects inappropriate image manipulation in a published article the decisions on what action to take will be influenced by whether manipulation of the images has an effect on the conclusions in the article. It is recommended that an expression of concern is published while an institutional investigation is ongoing. When an honest error has been detected, publishing a correction or retraction are possible outcomes.
The guidance of COPE offers editors a step by step process when handling the issue, including who to contact and when to consider a retraction, correction or expression of concern. This flowchart relates only to cases where concerns related to digital photographic images are raised (eg, duplication of parts within an image, or use of identical images to show different things). For wider concerns about potential data fabrication, please use the flowchart Fabricated data in a submitted manuscript. Where multiple papers are affected refer to Systematic manipulation of the publication process guidance.
